FreePeptideCalc

Sources & Methodology

Peptide dosing information online has a specific failure mode: confident numbers with nothing behind them. Dose ranges, half-lives and discard windows get repeated between sites until they feel like established fact, and tracing any of them back usually dead-ends at another site that also cited nothing. This page sets out what we do instead.

Two tracks, never mixed

Every compound here is sorted into one of two categories, and they are presented differently on purpose.

Approved drugs have an FDA label. Their titration schedules, concentrations and storage windows are reproduced from that label and cited to it. Where two labels for the same molecule disagree — and they sometimes do, such as the 30-day versus 60-day discard windows across HCG brands — we show both and say which label each belongs to rather than averaging them into a single wrong number.

Unapproved compounds get no dosing schedule at all, because none exists to reproduce. Instead we list the doses that appeared in named published studies, each tagged with the species it was given to and the route it was given by. A dose given to a rat in µg/kg is presented as a rat dose, not converted into a human one, because that conversion is not valid.

“No reliable source” is a finding we publish

When we could not trace something to a primary source, the page says so explicitly instead of quietly omitting it or filling the gap with a plausible number. Some examples of what that looks like in practice:

  • Sermorelin has no published reconstitution volume from any primary source, because the FDA withdrew Geref in 2009 and its labelling is not available on FDA’s systems. Every figure circulating for it traces to compounding pharmacies.
  • IGF-1 LR3 has no human dose because no human trial of it has ever been run, for any endpoint.
  • Half-lives for several research peptides are simply not published. Those pages say “not published” rather than repeating a number with no paper behind it.
  • The widely quoted 5 mg/kg/day benzyl alcohol limit does not appear in any FDA or USP document we could locate, so we do not state it as one.

Where common claims are wrong

Two things are repeated constantly in this niche and are worth correcting directly.

The 28-day rule is about the diluent, not your peptide. The manufacturer’s label for bacteriostatic water contains no 28-day statement at all. The 28 days comes from USP, and applies to how long a punctured multiple-dose container may be used. How long your reconstituted drug lasts is set by that drug’s own label, and those vary widely — 7 days for one tesamorelin product, immediate use for another, 30 days for one HCG brand and 60 for another.

Removal from FDA Category 2 did not make anything legal. A group of peptides including BPC-157 and TB-500 left Category 2 in April 2026 — but only because the parties who nominated them withdrew those nominations, and they were not moved to Category 1. They now appear on no FDA list at all, which leaves them still failing the statutory conditions for compounding. The July 2026 advisory committee votes recommending several of them are advisory and non-binding, and no rulemaking has followed.

What we deliberately do not have

There is no named medical reviewer on this site, and we are not going to invent one. A byline claiming review by a clinician who has not reviewed the page is worse than no byline. What we offer instead is traceability: every figure links to the document it came from, so you can check it yourself rather than trusting us. The arithmetic is separately covered by an automated test suite that runs against the calculation engine.

This site does arithmetic and reports what documents say. It does not tell you what to take, and nothing here is medical advice.

Covering 33 compounds against 205 sources.

Every source used on this site

Every number on this page comes from one of the documents below. Where no reliable source exists, the page says so instead of filling the gap.

  1. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026-08
    MOUNJARO (tirzepatide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  2. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026-08
    ZEPBOUND (tirzepatide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  3. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026-05
    OZEMPIC (semaglutide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  4. FDA labelFDA· 2026-03
    WEGOVY (semaglutide) injection and tablets — FDA prescribing information
  5. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026
    WEGOVY — current FDA Structured Product Label (FlexTouch and prefilled syringes)
  6. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    RYBELSUS / OZEMPIC (semaglutide) tablets — FDA prescribing information
  7. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    VICTOZA (liraglutide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  8. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    SAXENDA (liraglutide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  9. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    TRULICITY (dulaglutide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  10. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2025-05
    INCRELEX (mecasermin) injection, solution — FDA prescribing information
  11. RegulatorFDA· 2026-05-14
    Bulk Drug Substances Nominated for Use in Compounding Under Section 503A
  12. RegulatorFDA
    Bulk Drug Substances Used in Compounding Under Section 503A of the FD&C Act
  13. RegulatorFDA
    Certain Bulk Drug Substances for Use in Compounding May Present Significant Safety Risks
  14. RegulatorFDA· 2026-07
    July 23–24, 2026 Meeting of the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee
  15. RegulatorFDA Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee· 2026-05-11
    FDA evaluation of Semax-related bulk drug substances for the 503A Bulks List
  16. RegulatorFDA Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee· 2026-05-11
    FDA evaluation of emideltide (DSIP)-related bulk drug substances for the 503A Bulks List
  17. RegulatorFDA· 2024-12-04
    PCAC briefing document — substance descriptions and 503A statutory conditions
  18. RegulatorFDA· 2024-10
    October 29, 2024 Meeting of the Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee
  19. RegulatorFDA· 2026-09-01
    FDA's Concerns with Unapproved GLP-1 Drugs Used for Weight Loss
  20. RegulatorFDA
    Compounding Risk Alerts
  21. RegulatorFDA· 2026-08-24
    Warning Letter — Peak Performance Peptides (research-use-only labelling does not exempt an unapproved new drug)
  22. RegulatorFDA· 2026-04-01
    FDA clarifies policies for compounders as national GLP-1 supply begins to stabilize
  23. RegulatorWorld Anti-Doping Agency· 2026
    WADA 2026 Prohibited List
  24. RegulatorUSADA
    BPC-157 is a Prohibited Peptide
  25. RegulatorUSADA
    Peptides, Growth Hormones and Cosmetics
  26. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2023
    Jastreboff AM et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity — a Phase 2 Trial
  27. Published studyThe Lancet· 2022
    Urva S et al. LY3437943, a novel triple GIP/GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist — phase 1
  28. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2026-06-03
    NCT05929066 — TRIUMPH-1 phase 3 trial of retatrutide in obesity or overweight
  29. ReferenceEli Lilly and Company· 2026-05-21
    TRIUMPH-1 topline phase 3 results for retatrutide in obesity
  30. ReferenceEli Lilly and Company· 2026-07-23
    TRIUMPH-2 and TRIUMPH-3 topline phase 3 results for retatrutide
  31. ReferenceEli Lilly and Company· 2025-12-11
    TRIUMPH-4 topline phase 3 results for retatrutide in obesity and knee osteoarthritis
  32. Published studyZhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S.S. Korsakova· 2018
    Gusev EI et al. Efficacy of Semax in patients at different stages of ischemic stroke
  33. Published studyBulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine· 2018
    Lebedeva IS et al. Effects of Semax on the default mode network of the brain
  34. Published studyZhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S.S. Korsakova· 2014
    Medvedev VE et al. Comparison of Selank and phenazepam in anxiety disorders
  35. Published studyEuropean Psychiatry· 2012
    Syunyakov TS et al. Rapid and slow response during treatment of generalized anxiety disorder with Selank
  36. Published studyBulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine· 2014
    Kozlovskii II et al. Selank in a rat model of alcohol withdrawal
  37. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2025
    Aronne LJ et al. Tirzepatide as Compared with Semaglutide for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-5)
  38. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2021
    Frías JP et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2)
  39. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2021
    Wilding JPH et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1)
  40. Published studyDiabetes, Obesity and Metabolism· 2017
    Blundell J et al. Effects of once-weekly semaglutide on appetite, energy intake, control of eating, food preference and body weight in subjects with obesity
  41. Published studyDiabetes, Obesity and Metabolism· 2021
    Friedrichsen M et al. The effect of semaglutide 2.4 mg once weekly on energy intake, appetite, control of eating, and gastric emptying in adults with obesity
  42. Published studyReviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders· 2022
    Mahapatra MK et al. Semaglutide, a GLP-1 receptor agonist — structure and cardiovascular benefits
  43. Published studyPubMed Central
    Tirzepatide: A Novel, Once-weekly Dual GIP and GLP-1 Receptor Agonist
  44. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2006
    Teichman SL et al. Prolonged stimulation of GH and IGF-I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting GHRH analog
  45. Published studyPharmaceutical Research· 1999
    Gobburu JVS et al. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of ipamorelin in healthy men
  46. Published studyNeuropsychobiology· 1992
    Bes F et al. Effects of delta sleep-inducing peptide on sleep of chronic insomniac patients — a double-blind study
  47. Published studyInternational Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy, and Toxicology· 1981
    Schneider-Helmert D, Schoenenberger GA. Acute and delayed effects of DSIP on human sleep behavior
  48. Published studyEndocrinology· 2001
    Heffernan M et al. The effects of human GH and its lipolytic fragment AOD9604 on lipid metabolism
  49. Published studyCell Metabolism· 2015
    Lee C et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis
  50. Published studyPubMed Central
    Sikirić P et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 — a review of the rodent literature
  51. Published studyPubMed Central
    Thymosin beta-4 (RGN-259) phase 3 in neurotrophic keratopathy
  52. Published studyBioMed Research International 2015;2015:648108· 2015-07-07
    Pickart L, Vasquez-Soltero JM, Margolina A. GHK peptide as a natural modulator of multiple cellular pathways in skin regeneration (authors declare affiliation with Skin Biology, a copper-peptide manufacturer)
  53. Published studymedRxiv preprint· 2024
    Intravenous NAD+ in healthy adults — a randomised placebo-controlled pilot
  54. ReferenceR&D Systems
    Recombinant Human LR3 IGF-I — product datasheet (molecular weight, structure)
  55. ReferenceNIH / National Center for Biotechnology Information
    PubChem compound records (molecular weights and formulae)
  56. ReferenceU.S. National Library of Medicine
    ClinicalTrials.gov trial registry
  57. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    EGRIFTA WR (tesamorelin) for injection — FDA prescribing information and Instructions for Use
  58. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    EGRIFTA SV (tesamorelin) for injection — FDA prescribing information
  59. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2023
    PREGNYL (chorionic gonadotropin for injection, USP) — FDA prescribing information
  60. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    NOVAREL (chorionic gonadotropin for injection, USP) — FDA prescribing information
  61. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    HUMATROPE (somatropin) for injection — FDA prescribing information
  62. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    GENOTROPIN (somatropin) for injection — FDA prescribing information
  63. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2025-07
    NORDITROPIN (somatropin) injection — FDA prescribing information
  64. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026-06
    WEGOVY (semaglutide) injection — prescribing information and Instructions for Use (DailyMed)
  65. ReferenceNCBI PubChem
    Selank — PubChem compound summary (CID 11765600)
  66. ReferenceNCBI PubChem
    Semax — PubChem compound summary (CID 9811102)
  67. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2025-12
    FORZINITY (elamipretide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  68. RegulatorFDA· 2025-09-19
    FDA Grants Accelerated Approval for First Treatment of Barth Syndrome
  69. Published studyNeurology· 2023
    Karaa A et al. Efficacy and safety of elamipretide in individuals with primary mitochondrial myopathy: the MMPOWER-3 trial. Neurology 2023
  70. Published studyGenetics in Medicine· 2021
    Thompson WR et al. A phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial followed by an open-label extension to evaluate the effectiveness of elamipretide in Barth syndrome. Genet Med 2021
  71. Published studyEuropean Heart Journal· 2016
    Gibson CM et al. EMBRACE STEMI study: a Phase 2a trial of intravenous MTP-131 on reperfusion injury in patients undergoing primary PCI. Eur Heart J 2016
  72. RegulatorFDA· 2026-07
    FDA evaluation of KPV for the 503A Bulks List — PCAC briefing document, July 2026
  73. RegulatorFDA· 2026-07
    FDA evaluation of epitalon for the 503A Bulks List — PCAC briefing document, July 2026
  74. ReferenceNCBI PubChem
    Lys-Pro-Val (KPV) — PubChem compound summary (CID 125672)
  75. ReferenceNCBI PubChem
    Epitalon (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) — PubChem compound summary (CID 219042)
  76. Published study· 2016
    Viennois E et al. Critical role of PepT1 in promoting colitis-associated cancer and therapeutic benefits of the anti-inflammatory PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV in a murine model. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016
  77. Published study· 2008
    Dalmasso G et al. PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology 2008
  78. Published study· 2010
    Laroui H et al. Drug-loaded nanoparticles targeted to the colon with polysaccharide hydrogel reduce colitis in a mouse model. Gastroenterology 2010
  79. Published study· 2020
    Ivko OM et al. AEDG peptide regulates human circadian rhythms genes expression during pineal gland accelerated aging (Russian). Adv Gerontol 2020
  80. Published study· 2003
    Anisimov VN et al. Effect of Epitalon on biomarkers of aging, life span and spontaneous tumor incidence in female Swiss-derived SHR mice. Biogerontology 2003
  81. Published study· 2003
    Khavinson VKh et al. Epithalon peptide induces telomerase activity and telomere elongation in human somatic cells. Bull Exp Biol Med 2003
  82. FDA labelFDA· 2019
    VYLEESI (bremelanotide) injection — FDA prescribing information
  83. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    Bacteriostatic Water for Injection, USP — FDA prescribing information (NDA 018802)
  84. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed
    Sterile Water for Injection, USP — FDA prescribing information
  85. RegulatorFDA / Federal Register· 2009-05-19
    Withdrawal of approval of GEREF (sermorelin acetate), NDA 020443 and NDA 019863 — 74 FR 23407
  86. GuidelineUnited States Pharmacopeia· 2023
    USP General Chapter <797> Pharmaceutical Compounding — Sterile Preparations (2023 revision)
  87. ReferenceWHO / NIBSC· 2001
    WHO 2nd International Standard for Somatropin (NIBSC code 98/574) — 3.0 IU per mg
  88. GuidelineInstitute for Safe Medication Practices
    ISMP safety alerts on U-500 and U-100 insulin syringe confusion
  89. Published studyBMJ Paediatrics Open· 2023
    Zheng L-Y et al. Displacement volume of reconstituted powder injections and its effect on dosing accuracy
  90. GuidelineFDA / CDER· 2015-06
    Guidance for Industry: Allowable Excess Volume and Labeled Vial Fill Size in Injectable Drug and Biological Products
  91. GuidelineThe Pharmaceutical Journal· 2026-07
    Switching between weight-loss medications
  92. Published studyeClinicalMedicine· 2022-09-29
    Chin YH et al. The placebo response rate and nocebo events in obesity pharmacological trials — a systematic review and meta-analysis
  93. RegulatorFDA
    MedWatch — FDA Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program
  94. RegulatorFDA / CDER· 2026-09
    Drugs@FDA — application and approval records for semaglutide (NDA 209637, 213051, 215256, 218316) and tirzepatide (NDA 215866, 217806)
  95. RegulatorFDA· 2026-09
    Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluations (Orange Book) — product, patent and exclusivity data files
  96. RegulatorFDA
    Generic Drug Facts
  97. RegulatorFDA
    Drugs@FDA Glossary of Terms — tentative approval, abbreviated new drug application, therapeutic equivalence
  98. RegulatorFDA· 2024-12-19
    Declaratory Order: Resolution of Shortages of Tirzepatide Injection Products (Mounjaro and Zepbound)
  99. RegulatorFDA· 2024-03-08
    FDA Approves First Treatment to Reduce Risk of Serious Heart Problems Specifically in Adults with Obesity or Overweight
  100. RegulatorHealth Canada· 2026-09
    Drug Product Database — semaglutide product, marketing status and active ingredient records
  101. Published studyObesity Pillars· 2026-06
    Simancas-Racines D et al. Micronutrient risk with GLP-1 receptor and dual incretin agonists in obesity: mechanistic pathways, clinical signals, and a monitoring framework
  102. ReferenceFDA / CDER
    Drugs@FDA: FDA-Approved Drugs — searchable database of approved applications and products
  103. ReferenceNIH / National Library of Medicine
    PubMed — biomedical literature database
  104. ReferenceICANN
    ICANN Registration Data Lookup Tool (domain registration and nameserver records)
  105. Published studyThe Lancet 2011;378(9793):826–37· 2011-08-27
    Hall KD, Sacks G, Chandramohan D, Chow CC, Wang YC, Gortmaker SL, Swinburn BA. Quantification of the effect of energy imbalance on bodyweight
  106. Published studyNIH / NIDDK, Laboratory of Biological Modeling· 2011
    Dynamic Mathematical Model of Body Weight Change in Adults — peer-reviewed web appendix to Hall et al., Lancet 2011 (every model equation and coefficient)
  107. ReferenceNIH / NIDDK
    NIH Body Weight Planner — the public implementation of the Hall model
  108. Published studyInternational Journal of Obesity 2013;37(12):1614· 2013
    Hall KD, Chow CC. Why is the 3500 kcal per pound weight loss rule wrong?
  109. Published studyAmerican Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990;51(2):241–7· 1990-02
    Mifflin MD, St Jeor ST, Hill LA, Scott BJ, Daugherty SA, Koh YO. A new predictive equation for resting energy expenditure in healthy individuals
  110. Published studyAmerican Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1984;40(1):168–82· 1984-07
    Roza AM, Shizgal HM. The Harris Benedict equation reevaluated: resting energy requirements and the body cell mass
  111. Published studyInternational Journal of Obesity 2002;26(6):789–96· 2002-06
    Jackson AS, Stanforth PR, Gagnon J, et al. The effect of sex, age and race on estimating percentage body fat from body mass index: The Heritage Family Study
  112. ReferenceJournal of Sport and Health Science 2024;13(1):6–12· 2024
    Herrmann SD, Willis EA, Ainsworth BE, et al. 2024 Adult Compendium of Physical Activities: A third update of the energy costs of human activities
  113. Published studyInternational Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 2020;17:137· 2020-11
    Tudor-Locke C, Ducharme SW, Aguiar EJ, et al. Walking cadence (steps/min) and intensity in 41 to 60-year-old adults: the CADENCE-adults study
  114. RegulatorFDA / CDER· 2025-01
    Obesity and Overweight: Developing Drugs and Biological Products for Weight Reduction — Guidance for Industry (Draft, Revision 2, docket FDA-2007-D-0435)
  115. GuidelineInstitute of Medicine / National Academies· 2005
    Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids — AMDRs and protein RDA
  116. GuidelineUS Department of Health and Human Services· 2018
    Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition — Key Guidelines for Adults (150–300 minutes a week of moderate-intensity aerobic activity)
  117. RegulatorUS Code of Federal Regulations / FDA
    21 CFR 101.9(c)(1)(i) — general factors of 4, 4 and 9 calories per gram for protein, total carbohydrate and total fat
  118. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026-06
    HUMULIN R (insulin human) injection, 100 units/mL (U-100) — FDA prescribing information
  119. FDA labelFDA / DailyMed· 2026-07
    HUMULIN R U-500 (insulin human) injection, 500 units/mL — FDA prescribing information and Instructions for Use
  120. RegulatorFDA / CDRH· 2016-07
    510(k) K151870 — U-500 insulin syringe, substantial equivalence determination (cleared 8 July 2016)
  121. GuidelineInternational Organization for Standardization· 2016-03
    ISO 8537:2016 — Sterile single-use syringes, with or without needle, for insulin (scope and requirements; full text not public)
  122. Published studyClinical Pediatrics 2004;43(1):69–74· 2004-01
    Keith K, Nicholson D, Rogers D. Accuracy and precision of low-dose insulin administration using syringes, pen injectors, and a pump
  123. RegulatorUS Code of Federal Regulations / FDA
    21 CFR 522.1160 — Insulin (animal drugs): 40 international units (IU) per millilitre
  124. RegulatorFDA / Federal Register· 1998-05-13
    Removal of Regulations Regarding Certification of Drugs Composed Wholly or Partly of Insulin — 63 FR 26694 (the repealed insulin colour scheme, and U-40 no longer marketed)
  125. GuidelineNIBSC / WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization· 2010-09
    WHO International Standard, Insulin, Human (NIBSC 83/500) — Instructions for Use, unitage definition
  126. GuidelineNIBSC / WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization· 2025-10
    2nd WHO International Standard for insulin, human (NIBSC 11/212) — Instructions for Use, mass assignment and specific activity
  127. FDA labelFDA Center for Veterinary Medicine / DailyMed
    VETSULIN (porcine insulin zinc suspension) 40 IU/mL — FDA CVM-approved label and owner information sheet
  128. Published studyCase Reports in Endocrinology 2019;2019:7916435· 2019
    Barrera F, Murvelashvili N. Poorly controlled type 3c diabetes due to use of veterinarian insulin syringes
  129. Published studyJournal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2024;13(1):292–297· 2024-01
    Tulsan SK, Laila R, Patel H, et al. Errors in diabetic insulin therapy and the vitality of proper precautions in Bangladesh
  130. Published studyJournal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2017;6(4):724–729· 2017
    Chowdhury S, Chakraborty PP. Errors of insulin therapy: real-life experiences from developing world
  131. Published studyDiabetology International 2024;15(3):544–549· 2024-05
    Kondo M, Saji R, Yamada Y, et al. Analysis of factors affecting the accuracy of low-dose insulin dosage using syringes and vials
  132. Published studyJournal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2013;3(1-2):7–15· 2013
    Stier H, Vos E, Kenley D. Safety and Tolerability of the Hexadecapeptide AOD9604 in Humans (trials METAOD001–METAOD006)
  133. Published studyInternational Journal of Obesity 2001;25(10):1442–9· 2001-10
    Heffernan MA, Thorburn AW, Fam B, et al. Increase of fat oxidation and weight loss in obese mice caused by chronic treatment with human growth hormone or a modified C-terminal fragment
  134. Published studyJournal of Endocrinology 1993;137(3):413–21· 1993-06
    Tomas FM, Knowles SE, Chandler CS, Francis GL, Owens PC, Ballard FJ. Anabolic effects of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and an IGF-I variant in normal female rats
  135. Published studyGrowth Hormone & IGF Research 2001;11(2):92–103· 2001-04
    Tomas FM. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) analogue, LR(3)IGF-I, ameliorates the loss of body weight but not of skeletal muscle during food restriction
  136. Published studyJournal of Endocrinology 1997;155(2):377–86· 1997-11
    Tomas FM, Walton PE, Dunshea FR, Ballard FJ. IGF-I variants which bind poorly to IGF-binding proteins show more potent and prolonged hypoglycaemic action than native IGF-I in pigs and marmoset monkeys
  137. Published studyJournal of Endocrinology 1995;146(2):247–53· 1995-08
    Conlon MA, Tomas FM, Owens PC, Wallace JC, Howarth GS, Ballard FJ. Long R3 insulin-like growth factor-I infusion stimulates organ growth but reduces plasma IGF-I, IGF-II and IGF binding protein concentrations in the guinea pig
  138. Published studyGrowth Hormone & IGF Research 2010;20(5):386–90· 2010-10
    Kohler M, Thomas A, Walpurgis K, Terlouw K, Schänzer W, Thevis M. Detection of His-tagged Long-R³-IGF-I in a black market product
  139. Published studyNature Communications 2021;12:470· 2021-01-20
    Reynolds JC, Lai RW, Woodhead JST, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis
  140. Published studyAASLD The Liver Meeting (CohBar, Inc.)· 2021-11
    Loomba R, Hompesch M, Salazar H, Lawitz E, Kam J, Cundy KC. CB4211, a novel analog of MOTS-c, improves markers of liver injury and metabolism in obese subjects with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease — poster LB5
  141. Published studyClinicalTrials.gov / CohBar, Inc.· 2021-04-19
    NCT03998514 — Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of single and multiple ascending subcutaneous doses of CB4211 in healthy subjects and subjects with NAFLD (completed, no results posted)
  142. Published studyClinicalTrials.gov / Hudson Biotech· 2026-02-02
    NCT07505745 — MOTS-c for improving insulin sensitivity in adults with prediabetes and overweight/obesity (phase 2a, recruiting, dose not disclosed in the registration)
  143. Published studyClinicalTrials.gov / Hudson Biotech· 2026-02-02
    NCT07437586 — Phase 2 split-wound study of topical GHK-Cu gel to accelerate re-epithelialization of standardized acute skin wounds (recruiting)
  144. GuidelineInstitute of Medicine Panel on Micronutrients / National Academies Press· 2001
    Dietary Reference Intakes — Copper: Recommended Dietary Allowance 900 µg/day and Tolerable Upper Intake Level 10 mg/day for adults, set on liver damage as the critical endpoint
  145. RegulatorFDA / CDER· 2005-07
    Estimating the Maximum Safe Starting Dose in Initial Clinical Trials for Therapeutics in Adult Healthy Volunteers — Guidance for Industry (Table 1, body surface area conversion factors)
  146. Published studyFrontiers in Pharmacology 2022;13:1026182· 2022-12
    He L, Feng D, Guo H, et al. Pharmacokinetics, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of body-protective compound 157 in rats and dogs
  147. Published studyHSS Journal 2025;21(4):485–95· 2025-11
    Vasireddi N, Hahamyan H, Salata MJ, et al. Emerging Use of BPC-157 in Orthopaedic Sports Medicine: A Systematic Review
  148. Published studyAlternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 2021;27(4):8–13· 2021-07
    Lee E, Padgett B. Intra-Articular Injection of BPC 157 for Multiple Types of Knee Pain
  149. Published studyAmerican Journal of Sports Medicine 2026;54(1):223–9· 2026-01
    Mayfield CK, Bolia IK, Feingold CL, et al. Injectable Peptide Therapy: A Primer for Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Physicians
  150. Published studySports Medicine 2026;56(8):1921–35· 2026-08
    Mendias CL, Awan TM. Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance
  151. Published studyDrug Testing and Analysis 2012;4(9):733–8· 2012-09
    Esposito S, Deventer K, Goeman J, Van der Eycken J, Van Eenoo P. Synthesis and characterization of the N-terminal acetylated 17-23 fragment of thymosin beta 4 identified in TB-500
  152. Published studyAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2010;1194:223–9· 2010-04
    Ruff D, Crockford D, Girardi G, Zhang Y. A randomized, placebo-controlled, single and multiple dose study of intravenous thymosin beta 4 in healthy volunteers
  153. Published studyJoint Diseases and Related Surgery 2026;37(3):822–37· 2026-07
    Biçer O, Adanir O, Güleryüz Y, et al. Effects of BPC-157 and TB-500 on Achilles tendon healing in rats: a histopathological and biomechanical study
  154. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2015-10
    NCT02637284 — PCO-02 (oral BPC-157) phase 1 safety and pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers
  155. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2027-01
    NCT07803250 — Impact of BPC-157 on recovery from rotator cuff repair surgery (phase 1, University of Arkansas)
  156. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2017-07
    NCT04555824 and NCT04555850 — phase 1a and 1b intravenous recombinant human thymosin beta 4 (NL005) in healthy volunteers
  157. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2022-07
    NCT05984134 — phase 2 intravenous recombinant human thymosin beta 4 (NL005) after percutaneous coronary intervention for acute myocardial infarction
  158. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2006-07
    NCT00832091 — phase 2 topical thymosin beta 4 gel in venous stasis ulcers
  159. ReferenceInnovagen AB
    PepCalc.com — Peptide Property Calculator (sequence in; molecular weight, isoelectric point, extinction coefficient, net charge and solubility out)
  160. Published studyJournal of Computer-Aided Molecular Design 2016;30:271–277· 2016
    Lear S, Cobb SL. Pep-Calc.com: a set of web utilities for the calculation of peptide and peptoid properties and automatic mass spectral peak assignment
  161. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2011-08
    George JT et al. Kisspeptin-10 is a potent stimulator of LH and increases pulse frequency in men
  162. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2011-12
    Jayasena CN et al. The effects of kisspeptin-10 on reproductive hormone release show sexual dimorphism in humans
  163. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2011-06
    Chan YM et al. Kisspeptin resets the hypothalamic GnRH clock in men
  164. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2012-08
    Chan YM et al. Kisspeptin administration to women: a window into endogenous kisspeptin secretion and GnRH responsiveness across the menstrual cycle
  165. Published studyHuman Reproduction· 2015-08
    Jayasena CN et al. Direct comparison of the effects of intravenous kisspeptin-10, kisspeptin-54 and GnRH on gonadotrophin secretion in healthy men
  166. Published studyEuropean Journal of Endocrinology· 2026-08
    Yeung AC et al. Chronic subcutaneous kisspeptin-10 stimulates gonadotropin secretion for 12 days in healthy men
  167. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2005-12
    Dhillo WS et al. Kisspeptin-54 stimulates the hypothalamic-pituitary gonadal axis in human males
  168. Published studyJournal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism· 2007-10
    Dhillo WS et al. Kisspeptin-54 stimulates gonadotropin release most potently during the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle in women
  169. Published studyJournal of Clinical Investigation· 2014-08
    Jayasena CN et al. Kisspeptin-54 triggers egg maturation in women undergoing in vitro fertilization
  170. Published studyJournal of Chromatography B· 2013-05
    Liu Z et al. LC–MS/MS quantification of kisspeptin-10 (NSC 741805), its decomposition product and pharmacokinetics in rats
  171. Published studyMolecular Medicine· 2012-11
    Heij L et al. Safety and efficacy of ARA 290 in sarcoidosis patients with symptoms of small fiber neuropathy: a randomized, double-blind pilot study
  172. Published studyMolecular Medicine· 2013-11
    Dahan A et al. ARA 290 improves symptoms in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small nerve fiber loss and increases corneal nerve fiber density
  173. Published studyInvestigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science· 2017-05
    Culver DA et al. Cibinetide improves corneal nerve fiber abundance in patients with sarcoidosis-associated small nerve fiber loss and neuropathic pain
  174. Published studyMolecular Medicine· 2015-03
    Brines M et al. ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms in patients with type 2 diabetes
  175. Published studyPharmacology & Therapeutics· 2015-07
    Collino M et al. Flipping the molecular switch for innate protection and repair of tissues: long-lasting effects of a non-erythropoietic small peptide engineered from erythropoietin
  176. Published studyExpert Opinion on Investigational Drugs· 2014-04
    van Velzen M et al. ARA 290 for treatment of small fiber neuropathy in sarcoidosis
  177. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2015-02
    NCT02039687 — Study of Efficacy of ARA 290 on Corneal Nerve Fiber Density and Neuropathic Symptoms of Subjects With Sarcoidosis
  178. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov· 2015-09
    NCT01933529 — ARA290 in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, a phase II study
  179. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov
    NCT06626971 — The Use of ARA290 for the Treatment of Diabetic Macular Oedema (terminated)
  180. ReferenceAraim Pharmaceuticals (press release)· 2017-05-08
    Araim Pharmaceuticals' cibinetide (ARA 290) regenerates small nerve fibers and improves neuropathic clinical symptoms in the orphan disease of sarcoidosis
  181. FDA labelEuropean Medicines Agency
    Ovitrelle (choriogonadotropin alfa) — EU Summary of Product Characteristics
  182. ReferenceNIH Office of Dietary Supplements
    Vitamin D — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals
  183. ReferenceNIH Office of Dietary Supplements
    Vitamin E — Fact Sheet for Health Professionals
  184. FDA labelBPOM (Indonesian FDA)· 2024-08-02
    ZADAXIN (thymosin alpha 1) for injection — approved label, chronic hepatitis B
  185. FDA labelAIFA-authorised SmPC (document made available by AIFA 26 Feb 2026)· 2026-02-26
    ZADAXIN 1,6 mg/ml — Riassunto delle Caratteristiche del Prodotto (Italian SmPC)
  186. RegulatorFDA· 2026-03-31
    Warning Letter — Prime Sciences (cagrilintide sold as a research-use-only product)
  187. RegulatorFDA· 2026-08-24
    Warning Letter — NuScience Peptides LLC (survodutide sold as a research peptide)
  188. Published studyThe Lancet· 2021-05-08
    Enebo LB et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2·4 mg for weight management: a randomised, controlled, phase 1b trial
  189. Published studyThe Lancet· 2021-12-11
    Lau DCW et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial
  190. ReferenceNovo Nordisk / ClinicalTrials.gov· 2018-10-02
    NCT03856047 (NN9838-4433) — cagrilintide phase 2 clinical trial protocol, version 2.0
  191. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2025-08-14
    Garvey WT et al. Coadministered Cagrilintide and Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (REDEFINE 1)
  192. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov
    NCT05567796 — REDEFINE 1 phase 3 trial of CagriSema, cagrilintide and semaglutide in obesity
  193. ReferenceNovo Nordisk A/S· 2024-12-20
    CagriSema demonstrates superior weight loss in adults with obesity or overweight in the REDEFINE 1 trial
  194. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2025-08-14
    Davies MJ et al. Cagrilintide–Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes (REDEFINE 2)
  195. ReferenceNovo Nordisk A/S· 2026-02-23
    CagriSema demonstrated 23% weight loss in an open-label head-to-head REDEFINE 4 trial in people with obesity, the primary endpoint was not achieved
  196. ReferenceNovo Nordisk· 2025-12-18
    Novo Nordisk files for FDA approval of CagriSema, the first once-weekly combination of GLP-1 and amylin analogues for weight management
  197. Published studyThe Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology· 2024-03
    le Roux CW et al. Glucagon and GLP-1 receptor dual agonist survodutide for obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial
  198. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2024-07-25
    Sanyal AJ et al. A Phase 2 Randomized Trial of Survodutide in MASH and Fibrosis
  199. ReferenceBoehringer Ingelheim / ClinicalTrials.gov· 2023-07-27
    NCT04771273 (1404-0043) — survodutide phase 2 MASH clinical trial protocol
  200. Published studyNew England Journal of Medicine· 2026-08-20
    le Roux CW et al. Survodutide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Adults with Obesity (SYNCHRONIZE-1)
  201. Published studyObesity· 2025-01
    Wharton S et al. Survodutide for treatment of obesity: rationale and design of two randomized phase 3 clinical trials (SYNCHRONIZE-1 and -2)
  202. Published studyDiabetes, Obesity and Metabolism· 2026-01
    le Roux CW et al. Survodutide for treatment of obesity: Baseline characteristics of participants in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial (SYNCHRONIZE-1)
  203. ReferenceZealand Pharma A/S· 2026-04-28
    Zealand Pharma announces Boehringer Ingelheim's survodutide achieved significant weight loss of 16.6% in people with obesity or overweight in Phase 3 trial (SYNCHRONIZE-1 topline)
  204. Published studyNature Medicine· 2026-08
    Kaplan LM et al. Survodutide in adults with obesity and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: SYNCHRONIZE-MASLD, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial
  205. ReferenceClinicalTrials.gov
    NCT06066528 — SYNCHRONIZE-2 phase 3 trial of survodutide in obesity with type 2 diabetes